The defense of a nation or civilization remains a key to its existence and longevity. Many ancient civilizations were built on the back of a strong military.
When we think about the modern military, we think of tanks, missiles, planes, guns, drones and other hi-tech equipment. In the time of ancient Rome and ancient Greece, we look at foot soldiers (i.e. a centurion or legionary from Rome or a hoplite or peltasts from Greece), cavalry (Equites and cataphracts), war elephants and siege weapons (onager, catapult). Defensive weapons were also crucial (caltrops for cavalry etc.).
Ancient warfare was decided mainly by brute strength and discipline, due to the face-to-face nature of combat. Many battles were fought over multiple days, often hours at a time. Breaks in fighting were taken to enable both sides to tend to the wounded and to remove the dead. Nightfall also meant that the fighting generally stopped until the next day.
Military campaigns were also quite often conducted during certain times of the year when the weather was more favorable. Quite often throughout history many armies were caught out due to bad weather (heavy snow, torrential rain or extreme heat). Weather played crucial roles in some battles and campaigns, leading to disastrous results for one side.
Ancient history is littered with famous battles – The Battle of Zama, The Battle of Cannae, The Battle of Thermopylae, The Battle of Hastings, to name a few. These battles changed the course of civilizations and therefore, history itself.
Arising from these battles, we get famous leaders. Those who led their army into battle and triumphed (sometimes against extraordinary odds). Some of these leaders would also be the leader of their civilization. These include Julius Caesar, Attila the Hun and Genghis Khan. While some military leaders were brilliant generals that could be relied upon to defend their people. People like Germanicus, Flavius Stilicho, Belisarius and Pompey the Great.
When talking about the military, we cannot just talk about battles and campaigns, as the military is more than that. Armies are made up of thousands of individuals, all with requirements that are needed to keep troops in optimal fighting shape. This included provisions like food and water, the correct armor and weapons (in good condition), shelter, religious objects and good morale. Optimizing each element could mean the difference between a win or a loss in battle, such was the importance of physical strength, discipline, endurance and morale.
As armies mainly marched on foot (with-the-exception-of transporting troops across oceans etc.), it was vital that supply lines were maintained so an army could have access to important provisions to sustain its troops. The further away that an army marched from its closest town or city, the more volatile the supply line became as there was an increased risk of that supply line being interrupted (i.e. from bandits, the enemy or even unfavorable weather conditions).
There are even times throughout history where an empire or nation would be invaded and, as part of their strategy to destroy vital supplies for the invading force, they would lay waste to their own farmland, food stores and towns. This would deny the invading army of those things crucial to maintaining an army with good morale. This also had the effect of lengthening the supply lines, which made it more difficult for an invading army to operate.
The use of specific battle tactics throughout history should also not be underestimated. Think of Hannibal’s use of war elephants, the double envelopment strategy he used to annihilate the Roman army at Cannae, the hollow square used by Marcus Crassus against the Parthians at Carrhae and the use of Spartans at the battle of Thermopylae. These tactics were significant in these battles – some were disastrous, while some were strokes of genius by brilliant military commanders.
The evolution of military units and their equipment is quite stark throughout human history. From the basic weapons made by the earliest humans, we moved through the ages using linen and leather as armor with wicker shields, to using metal chainmail and plating, wooden shields and metal helmets. As we progressed, we went from slingers to archers, short and long bows, then to cross bows.
The invention of gunpowder changed the game. No longer would an army have to rely on catapults and siege towers as cannonballs could be fired from a distance. Cannons led to the fall of Constantinople and with it, the Byzantine Empire.
Studying various battles and significant military campaigns often leads to learning about mistakes and follies that were made by commanders and leaders. This leads us to ponder many ‘what-ifs’ and we wonder what might have been, had these people made different decisions at the time.
There are so many facets to explore when it comes to the military throughout history – fascinating in its evolution and its heroes and villains.