Ancient FAQ – Part II

Below is part two of our frequently asked questions about ancient civilizations.

1. What is a pleb?
2. What does panem et circenses mean?
3. How did Alaric die?
4. How long did it take to build the Colosseum?
5. What was the Colosseum used for?
6. What was the Circus Maximus?
7. Who killed Cicero?
8. When was the first Punic War?
9. How many soldiers in a Roman legion?
10. How did Brutus die?

A pleb, or plebeian, is the Latin word for ordinary person. More than that, it is generally used to describe someone from a lower social class. It was first used by the Romans to describe the poor citizens in their city and throughout their empire. To find out more about the plebeians, head over here.

Panem et circenses is Latin for ‘bread and circuses’. It was a term coined by Juvenal to describe a way of placating the mob. If the mob were provided with food and distractions (like chariot races and gladiatorial contests), they would be easier to control. It was also a tool to keep the mob from rioting and revolting during times of turmoil.

He seems to point to the citizens losing a sense of civic duty to their country/society, and they only care about satisfying their basic desires – food and entertainment. Keep them fed and entertained so fewer questions are asked of their leaders. Find out more about panem et circenses here.

Although the records are not entirely sure, it is believed that Alaric died from fever.

The Visigothic king took his army south of Rome after sacking the Eternal City in AD 410. He was preparing to sail to Sicily when he fell ill. Find out more about Alaric here.

The Colosseum (also known as the Flavian Amphitheater) took approximately eight years to build.

The building of the Colosseum started in the year AD 72 under Emperor Vespasian and was completed in AD 80 by his son, Emperor Titus. Head here to find out more.

The Colosseum was used for many things throughout its history. These include gladiatorial contests, beast hunts, executions of criminals, and re-enactments. According to some sources, the Colosseum was flooded with water, and mock naval battles were held.

When gladiatorial battles were banned, athletic events were still held there. After the fall of the Roman Empire, the Colosseum was used as farmland and housed the city’s poor. To find out more about the Colosseum, head here.

The Circus Maximus was a large stadium with many uses over the centuries, but it was most notable for holding the chariot races in Rome.

Before the construction of arenas such as the Colosseum and the Stadium of Domitian, the Circus Maximus was the place where people could congregate and watch all sorts of sporting events, such as those witnessed at the Colosseum (gladiator fights, beast hunts, executions, etc.).

It was also used as part of the Triumphal march that returning generals and emperors would get if they were victorious on the battlefield. This honor would generally have to be bestowed upon them by the Senate. Head over to this page to find out more about the Circus Maximus.

Marcus Tullius Cicero was killed by the centurion, Herennius, with the assistance of a tribune, Popillius.

Cicero had been a fierce critic of Marc Antony and had tried to have Antony declared an enemy of the state due to his siege of Mutina in northern Italy.

When events led to Marc Antony forming the second triumvirate with Octavian (future Emperor Augustus) and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, Cicero, and his supporters became the hunted, and a whole swathe of people, including Cicero, were named enemies of the state.

Cicero then made plans to flee Italy and head to Macedonia via the east coast of Italy. Herennius and Popillius first headed to Cicero’s villa, but he wasn’t there. A freedman, Philologus, told them that Cicero was on his way to the sea.

Herennius then made his way along the route that Cicero was taking and caught up with him. According to Plutarch in his book, The Parallel Lives, The Life of Cicero, XLVIII:

“Herennius cut off his head, by Antony’s command, and his hands — the hands with which he wrote the Philippics. For Cicero himself entitled his speeches against Antony “Philippics,” and to this day the documents are called Philippics.”

The first Punic War was fought between 264-241 BC between the Romans and the empire of Carthage.

With the two superpowers vying for supremacy, it was only a matter of time before they would clash. Carthage was an older empire (established in what is now Tunisia) that had taken over most of North Africa, parts of Spain, Sardinia, Corsica, and most of Sicily.

The Romans were ambitious, conquered most of the Italian mainland, and set their sights on Sicily.

The war raged on, starting in Sicily, then on to North Africa, and then ending in Sicily, where the Romans blockaded the Carthaginian towns and defeated the naval force trying to re-supply the troops in Sicily. After the defeat, the Carthaginian senate was reluctant to fund another round of shipbuilding and instead ordered its general, Hamilcar Barca (father of Hannibal), to negotiate a peace treaty.

The Roman victory resulted in Carthage paying Rome vast sums of money over a decade and the Roman annexation of Sicily. Subsequent threats of war a few years later saw Carthage hand over more money, as well as Sardinia and Corsica.

Numbers can vary, but generally, a Roman legion (at full strength) had around 5,000 troops, including legionaries and cavalry. Auxiliary troops can inflate these numbers, while war, disease, attrition, desertion, and mutiny can all affect the legion’s strength.

The later Empire saw legions reach up to 6,000 in number after the army was reorganized to suit the changing times.

Marcus Junius Brutus, one of Julius Caesar’s assassins, died by suicide. He fell on his sword after the defeat of his and Cassius’ army by Marc Antony at the battle of Philippi, Macedonia (now modern-day Greece).

Brutus fled the battle with his four defeated legions after Cassius and earlier committed suicide as well. Knowing that he was going to be captured, he told his soldiers to flee for their lives. After talking to those closest to him, they all refused to help him kill himself. As Plutarch notes in The Parallel Lives, The Life of Brutus, LII:

“And when Volumnius refused, and the rest likewise, and someone said they must not tarry but fly, Brutus rose and said: “By all means must we fly; not with our feet, however, but with our hands.”

A short time later, Brutus fell on his sword.

Sources:

Plutarch – The Life of Cicero (Thayer) – https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Cicero*.html

Plutarch – The Life of Brutus (Thayer) – https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Brutus*.html